Quotation Marks Muddle

 

(Source: https://x.com/coaiecrete/status/2113169549558534422)

The N-word

When the size of a sample is given as an "n=" (number =) value, is it a capital or lower case 'N'?

In English texts, the choice between a capital "N" and a lowercase "n" depends on whether you are referring to the total population or a specific subgroup. Here is the standard rule used in scientific and statistical writing (such as APA style): 

Use lowercase "n" when referring to a subsample or a specific group within a larger study. For example, if a study looked at 100 people total, but only 45 were men, you would write: "The male subgroup (n = 45) showed significant improvement".
Use uppercase "N" when referring to the total population or the entire sample size of a study. For example: "The total sample size for the study was N = 100". 

"Weekly Language Usage Tips: n or N in sample sizes ..." Language Usage Weblog February 23, 2012.

In Medieval Numismatics, is it silver 'dirhams' or 'dirhems'?

The correct term in English is silver dirhams. The word comes from the Arabic dirham (Arabic: dirham, plural darāhim), a silver coin widely used in the medieval Islamic world. In English historical and archaeological writing (singular: dirham, plural: dirhams). You sometimes see dirhems as a transliteration variant, usually reflecting:

• French or older European scholarship

• attempts to reflect pronunciation differently

• inconsistent transliteration from Arabic

However, in modern English-language scholarship, especially in archaeology and numismatics, dirhams is overwhelmingly preferred.Quick rule

• Use: dirham / dirhams ✔

• Avoid in English: dirhem / dirhems (unless quoting a source)
  
  
  

Em-dashes and spaces

Whether to use spaces around an em dash depends on the style guide being followed; however, the general rule is no spaces, as is common in book publishing and academic style guides like Chicago, MLA, and APA. The major exception is AP style and many newspapers, which require a space on either side of the em dash for readability in narrow columns. 

Consistency is key, so always follow the specific guidelines of your style guide. 

Style guide recommendations

No spaces: Most major academic and book publishers recommend using the em dash without spaces on either side. This is considered standard for most forms of writing.

Example: "The flight—which had already been delayed three times—was canceled."

Spaces around the dash: Newspapers, including those that follow AP style, typically use spaces around an em dash.

Example: "The flight — which had already been delayed three times — was canceled."

Why the difference? The spacing in newspapers improves readability in narrow columns, while the lack of space is often preferred for book publishing to create a more cohesive look. 

Tips for using em dashes with spaces

Be consistent: Whichever style you choose, apply it consistently throughout your document.

Consider context: The most important rule is to follow the style guide you are required to use (e.g., for a specific publication, academic assignment, or newspaper).

Think about a thin space: For even more professional typesetting, a very small "thin space" can be used on each side of an em dash instead of a full space. 

The Problem With Em-dashes

In some langauges, m-dashes are frequently used as punctuation marks. In English they are seldom used. BUT the (over)use of m-dashes is a commonly recognised symptom of a text being written by AI, and for that reason, should be avoided as much as possible in acadmic writing, they create a bad impression. I suggest removing as many as you can replacing them with other punctuation where it is possible.

 

"Cf."

"cf." is the abbreviation for the Latin word confer or conferatur, which both mean "compare". A common usage error is to use "cf." when "see" or "see also" is appropriate; "cf." should only be used to suggest a comparison, not simply to indicate another source.

Correct usage: The text before the citation is contrasted with the work cited after "cf." Example: "...while theory supports the claim (cf. Jones 1992)." Example: "...the shield lacked the 'umbo,' the metal-boss of Waltharius (cf. lines 772 and 776)."

Incorrect usage: Using "cf." to mean "see" or "see also" is considered an error.
Incorrect: "...while theory supports the claim, see also Jones 1992."
Correct: "...while theory supports the claim (see also Jones 1992)."

"Cf." should not be followed by a comma. It is generally followed by a semicolon or parentheses, not a comma, when introducing citations that are meant to be contrasted.

Punctuation: If using multiple citations after "cf.", a semicolon is used between them, not a comma. Example: "...the claim (cf. Jones 1992; Smith 2003)."

The use of parentheses is common with "cf." citations.

In Numismatic use, the abbreviation can have a similar meaning in discussing literature or opinions, or it can be used in references on the paper and/or online coin identification information to mean "comparable TO". It is common for abbreviations of listings in coin catalogues or sales from certain online auctions to be cited when identifying a particular coin as a duplicate copy of the same coin (for example a die-linked coin). If the specimen in question being described is not an exact match but comes close to a known source, "cf." may be used in the meaning "comparable/similar to".

Are ad hominem and ad personam arguments the same or is there a difference?

Bot:
Ad hominem and ad personam are both forms of fallacies that are used to attack the person making an argument, rather than addressing the argument itself. However, they are not the same thing. An ad hominem fallacy is an attack on the person's character, background, or personal attributes. For example, if someone says "You can't trust what he says, he's just a used car salesman," that is an ad hominem attack because it is attempting to undermine the person's credibility based on their profession rather than the argument they are making.An ad personam fallacy is an attack on the person's reputation or status. For example, if someone says "He's just a celebrity, he doesn't know anything about politics," that is an ad personam attack because it is attempting to undermine the person's credibility based on their fame rather than the argument they are making.In summary, while both ad hominem and ad personam are fallacies that attack the person rather than the argument, ad hominem attacks the person's character, background or personal attributes, while ad personam attacks the person's reputation or status.

Can you provide an example of an ad hominem fallacy and explain how it differs from an ad personam fallacy?

Assistant Poe:

Sure, here's an example to illustrate the difference:

Ad Hominem Fallacy:
Person A: "I think we should increase taxes on high-income earners to fund social programs."
Person B: "Well, you're just saying that because you're a socialist who wants to punish successful people."

In this case, Person B is attacking Person A's character by calling them a "socialist" in an attempt to dismiss their argument, rather than engaging with the actual merits of the proposal to increase taxes.

Ad Personam Fallacy:
Person A: "We should invest more in renewable energy to address climate change."
Person B: "Why should we listen to you? You're just some college kid who doesn't know anything about the economy."

Here, Person B is attacking Person A's status as a "college kid" in an attempt to undermine their credibility, rather than addressing the substance of their argument about renewable energy.

The key difference is that the ad hominem fallacy targets the person's character or personal attributes, while the ad personam fallacy targets the person's reputation, status or position. Both are fallacies because they try to discredit the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.

Past Simple pronunciation

The pronunciation of the Past Simple made easy. In English, past tense verbs with an -ed ending are pronounced in three different ways: 

[t]
[d] or
[Id].


Why the Sound Changes

If you place your fingertips on the front of your neck, and pronounce the following pairs of words, you should feel some vibration on your fingers with one of them:
vow | fake (vvv | fff)
zebra | snake (zzz | sss)

The vibrating ones are "voiced" sounds. [v] [z].

When we pronounce "voiceless" sounds (such as /p/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/ or /k/), our vocal chords do not vibrate.

This vibration or lack of vibration then carries forward to the following sound in the word. Therefore, this vibration or lack of vibration explains why we pronounce the past tense of verbs in three voiced or voiceless ways: [t], [d] or [Id].

1) If the verb ends in /t/ or /d/, this will cause the past simple ending to be pronounced /Id/ (or /əd/).

Examples, wanted, visited, edited, ended, threaded (beads).

2) If the verb ends in a voiceless sound, such as /p/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /θ/, or /k/, the past simple ending is pronounced as the voiceless /t/ (with no vocal chord vibration) 

For example, stoppedn popped, talked, laughed, reached, kissed and washed.

3) If the verb ends in another voiced sound [b, g, ð, v, z, ʒ, dʒ, m, n, ŋ, r, l], cause the “-ed” ending to be pronounced as a voiced [d].

For example, Loved, rolled, cleared, banged, played, allowed, begged, breathed, raised, claimed, banned.